Ryotwari and Mahalwari Systems were the land revenue System introduced in India by the British. Under the Ryotwari and Mahalwari Systems, the Indian peasants were forced to pay part of their produce as land taxes. India was holding a prominent place in the fields of agriculture and cottage industries. With the coming of the British, the entire trade and agrarian sectors lost their prominence and were destroyed. British levied heavy taxes on Indians to meet their administrative and war expenses.

The Ryotwari and Mahalwari Systems NCERT is a crucial topic in modern history for UPSC.

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Land Revenue System Before British India

• Though Ryotwari System and Mahalwari Systems were introduced later, the collection of land revenue existed from ancient times.
• Revenue made out of the land was an important source of income for the kings.
• Mostly the lands were divided into Jagirs and Jagirdars were allotted these Jagirs.
• These Jagirdars in turn divided the land further and allocated them to Zamindars.
• These Zamindars were responsible for collecting the land revenue from the peasants which was mostly a part of their produce.
• The land revenue System of the Mughals was widely followed in the country. They had three types of Systems – Ghalla Bakshi, Kankut and Zabti System.

Land Revenue System in British India

The British adopted three types of land revenue Systems. They are:

1. Zamindari System
2. Ryotwari System
3. Mahalwari System

Zamindari System

• This System was introduced in India by Lord Cornwallis through a Permanent Settlement Act.
• In the Zamindari System, the Zamindar was recognised as the land owner and this ownership was made hereditary.
• Zamindar acted as an intermediate between the King and the peasants.
• The sum to be paid by the Zamindar to the King was fixed in perpetuity.
• Zamindar had to give 10/11 of the revenue collected from the peasants to the King and 1/11 was his share.
• Even in the case of crop failure, the revenue had to be paid to the King by Zamindar. If the tax was not paid on time, then the Zamindar’s property was confiscated by the King.
• It was practised in the provinces of Bengal, Orissa, Bihar and Varanasi.
• Later the Zamindari System was abolished and the British opted for the Ryotwari System.

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Issues with Zamindari System

• Zamindars were free to set the rent. They made use of this provision and levied heavy taxes on peasants.
• Zamindars even employed subordinates to collect the rent. This in turn increased the number of intermediaries.
• These intermediaries too began to levy taxes and made their profit. This pushed the peasants to further distress.
• The peasants were reduced to mere tenants and their ownership was deprived.
• The cultivators borrowed money from money lenders to pay their taxes.
• The Zamindari System created a class of landless agriculturists and money lenders.

Ryotwari System

• The Ryotwari System was devised by Sir Thomas Munro and Captain Alexander Reed.
• However, the Ryotwari System was introduced by Sir Thomas Munro in India.
• Unlike the Zamindari System, there was no intermediary between the king and the peasants.
• A direct settlement link was established between the king and the cultivator.
• The peasants were recognised as sole proprietors of the land and they had complete right to sell, cultivate or lease the land.
• Under the Ryotwari System the cultivators were known as the ryots.
• The tax rates were fixed high. It was 50% for dry lands and 60% for wetlands.
• Ryotwari settlement was not a permanent system and the rates were revised periodically after every 20 or 30 years
• This system was practised mostly in Bombay and Madras.

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Issues with Ryotwari System

• In the Ryotwari System, the tax rate was very high and only a bare minimum was left in the hands of the Ryots.
• The cultivators depended on the money lenders to pay their tax.
• The money lenders levied high-interest rates and exploited the cultivators. In case of loan default, the land was confiscated.
• Assessment of the crops was one of the major drawbacks.
• Peasants were forced to pay taxes even during times of crop failure.
• The tax rate was periodically revised and increased as per the demands.

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Mahalwari System

• The Mahalwari System was devised by Holt Mackenzie and was introduced under William Benthick.
• This system was a modified form of the Zamindari System.
• This system was introduced in the parts of North-West Frontier Province, Punjab, Gangetic valley and Central Province.
• In the Mahalwari settlement, the land in the entire village belonged jointly to the village community.
• The Mahal was either a single village or group of villages and the village headman of that particular Mahal was responsible for collecting and settling the land revenue.
• The village headman divided the tax among the villagers who made their share in land revenue.
• The individual peasants had the ownership right over their land.

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Issues with Mahalwari System

• In Mahalwari System, the revenue demands were high and was maintained between 50% to 75%
• It was difficult for the peasants to pay high tax as the lands were fragmented and thus they fell in the trap of money lenders.
• The practise of sub leasing became more common during the Mahalwari System.

Comparison of the Land Revenue Systems

Apart from the Ryotwari, Mahalwari and Zamindari Systems, the British also introduced Talukdari and Malguzari Systems. Thus it is evident that the British levied taxes at a high rate on the natives in order to run their administration. As a result of British land revenue systems, the land became a commodity resulting in a class of labourers known as bonded labourers. Bound to their land till the end, the peasants struggled to make ends meet under these land revenue systems imposed by the British.

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