Gender Inequality in India: History, Causes, Types, Effects, UPSC Notes

Gender inequality in India encompasses disparities in health, education, economic opportunities, and political representation between men and women. Different international indices on gender inequality provide varying rankings for India across these factors, and there is ongoing debate and controversy surrounding these indices. Women have faced discrimination since ancient times and even today. It manifests in other forms. 

This is an important topic from the perspective of upcoming UPSC Exams, and aspirants should try to understand the history, types, causes, and effects of Gender Inequality in India. Gender Inequality in India is an important topic for GS paper 1 (Society) of the Mains exam.

This article briefly explains gender inequality from ancient times to the present century and its manifestations in different forms.

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What is Gender Inequality?

Gender inequality is the unequal treatment of individuals or groups based on their gender identity or expression. It can manifest in many different ways, including discrimination, violence, and exploitation.

History of Gender Inequality in India

During ancient Vedic civilization, women held a highly respectable position in society. They were part of Sabhas and Samitis, and there were very learned women like Gargi, Lopamudra, etc. Manusmriti also regards women as it declares in verses 3.55- 3.56 that “Women must be honored and adorned” and that “where women are revered, the god rejoices; but where they aren’t, no sacred rites bears any fruits.”

But with the advent of the later Vedic period, women’s condition started deteriorating due to various practices like early marriages, polygamy, and being banned from being part of Sabhas and Samitis.

During the medieval period, women in India were subjected to cruel practices such as dowry, sati, purdah system, and the prominence of polygamy. The system of dowry continues to be a concern in urban and rural India, and even resulted in the deaths of women. Modern science and technology have also resulted in the common practice of female foeticides. In the 2001 census, the sex ratio was 927 females per 1,000 males, which showed the deeply entrenched nature of gender discrimination in Indian society.

During colonial times, practices like female infanticide were widespread among certain communities, driven by economic pressures to avoid dowry payments and reduce division of family land. The British-era Female Infanticide Prevention Act of 1870 and social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Savitribai Phule championed women’s rights, abolishing Sati, promoting widow remarriage, and advancing women’s education.

Nowadays, rape, molestation, domestic violence, eve-teasing, and sexual harassment at workplaces have become a common threat to the life of women. As per some reports, every 42 minutes, some women are sexually exploited, and every 93 minutes, a woman is burnt for dowry.

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Current Status of Gender Inequality in India

Global Rankings

• Gender Inequality Index (GII) 2022: India ranks 108 out of 193 countries, improved from 122 in 2021.
• Global Gender Gap Report 2024: India ranks 129 out of 146 countries, a slight decline from 127 in 2023.

Economic Participation and Opportunity

• India has closed 60.5% of the economic participation gap.
• Women earn only 18% of men’s labor income (World Inequality Report 2022).
• Female Labour Force Participation Rate improved from 49.8% (2017-18) to 60.1% (2023-24).
• Women bear disproportionate unpaid care work.

Educational Attainment

• 94.9% of the education gap has been closed.
• Female literacy rate improved to about 77% (latest MoSPI report).
• Literacy gap persists: Female literacy at 65.46% vs. male at 82.14% (2011 Census).

Health and Survival

• 95.1% of the health gap closed; India ranks 142nd.
• Issues include adverse sex ratio at birth and maternal mortality.

Political Empowerment

• Only 22.5% of the political empowerment gap closed.
• Women’s representation: 17.2% in Parliament and 6.9% in ministerial posts.
• Impact of Women’s Reservation Bill (2023) expected in future elections.

National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2019-21)

• 49% of women aged 15-49 lack decision-making power on spending their money.
• Only 13% of women own a house alone; 8.3% own land alone.
• Mobile phone access: 54% of women vs. 91% of men.
• Internet use among women with mobile access is about one-third, compared to half for men.
• 79% of women own a bank account (Jan-Dhan Yojana contribution).
• Nearly 30% of married women have experienced spousal violence.

Other Key Trends

• Female voter turnout (65.8%) in 2024 surpassed male turnout.
• Female entrepreneurship and startups with women directors have grown sharply.
• Maternal Mortality Ratio has improved but varies regionally.
• Child marriage declined to 23.3% (2019-21) from 47% (2006), with some states still showing high rates.

Latest Global Indices (2025 Ranking Updates)

• In the Global Gender Gap Report 2025, India slipped to 131 out of 148 countries with a parity score of 64.1%, down from 129 in 2024, despite small absolute gains—this signals that other nations are improving faster.
• India moved up to 102 out of 193 nations, from 108 in 2022, under the UNDP's Gender Inequality Index (GII) 2025, showing gradual and real advances in reproductive health, empowerment of women, and the labor market.

What are the Causes of Gender Inequality in India?

The below given are some of the major causes of gender discrimination in India:

• Patriarchal Social Norms: The deeply ingrained cultural prejudices prefer men, resulting in practices such as preference for boys and sex-selective abortions.
• Economic Dependence: Women have limited access to education, training, and formal employment, becoming financially dependent on men in their families. Domestic work is under-valued.
• Weak Law Enforcement: Progressive laws exist but enforcement is weak, compounded by social resistance and low awareness among women about their rights.
• Safety and Security Issues: High rates of gender-based violence restrict women’s freedom and participation.
• Educational Disparities: As much as enrollment has increased, girls experience significant dropout because of early marriage and domestic responsibilities, and gender stereotyping remains prevalent.
• Health Disparities: Women experience poor reproductive health services, nutritional deprivation, and restricted access to healthcare, particularly in rural communities.
• Gender inequality is deeply entwined with patrilineality and patrilocality—cultural norms where inheritance passes through male lines and married women move into their husband's family—reinforcing economic dependence and dowry pressure.

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Types of Gender Inequality in India

According to Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen, India currently experiences seven types of gender inequalities, which are discussed below.

• Mortality Inequality: More women than men in India face higher mortality rates due to inadequate nutrition and limited access to healthcare, resulting in a higher male population.
• Natality Inequality: A preference for male children over female children leads to sex-selective abortions, which are punishable under the law but still prevalent in India.
• Employment Inequality: Women in India face higher unemployment rates than men. They also experience discrimination, harassment, and lower minimum wages in the workplace.
• Ownership Inequality: Historically, women in India have been denied property rights, limiting their voices and making participating in economic and commercial activities challenging.
• Special Opportunity Inequality: Women in India are deprived of special opportunities such as work and education.
• Fundamental Facility Inequality: Unreported injustices and inequalities persist due to societal pressures related to name, honor, and reputation, impacting women's access to basic facilities.
• Household Inequality: Women face inequality within households, such as the preference for sons over daughters and restrictions on women's employment and higher education opportunities.

Incorporating Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen’s framework, we can extend this typology to include:

• Educational Inequality: Lower access to quality education leads to poorer economic prospects.
• Political Inequality: Grassroots gains (e.g., panchayat reservations) haven’t translated into commensurate national-level representation.

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Effects of Gender Inequality in India

Some of the major impacts of gender inequality in India include the following:

• Gender Inequality can manifest in different forms, and it concerns both men and women. One of the effects of Gender Inequality in India is Domestic violence. According to National Crime Record Bureau(NCRB) 2019 data, the majority (30.9%) of all 4.05 lakh cases of crime against women are registered under Section 498A of the IPC, which saw a sudden increase in the COVID-19 pandemic.
• As discussed above, women have no bodily choices, so their medical health further deteriorates. Rajasthan and Haryana are seeing lower infant mortality rates due to sex determination, and it has become one of the causes that many girls cannot survive until their 15th birthday.
• Sex determination and sex-selective abortion a crime in India, but various cases have been reported where women are forced to abort if it’s a female fetus.
• Due to gender inequality, girls receive poor-quality education, affecting their economic status.
• Women also hesitate to participate in politics, so issues like violence against women, childcare, and maternal health remain unaddressed.

Learn about the Role of Women’s Organizations here.

Government Initiatives to Promote Gender Equality in India

Some of the key Indian government schemes that aim to bring down the gender injustice done to women include:

• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP): Focuses on improving the Child Sex Ratio and promoting girl child education.
• Mission Shakti: An umbrella scheme for safety, security, and empowerment of women, integrating schemes like One Stop Centres (OSCs), Women Helplines, Swadhar Greh, and Ujjwala.
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): Provides clean cooking fuel, reducing drudgery and health risks for women.
• Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY): Promotes financial inclusion, with a significant positive impact on women's access to bank accounts.
• Mahila Shakti Kendras (MSK): Empowering rural women through community participation.
• Stand-Up India Scheme & Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana: Support women entrepreneurs with financial assistance.
• Mahila E-Haat: Online marketing platform for women entrepreneurs.
• National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) & Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP): Empowering rural women through Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and agricultural support.
• Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana: Small savings scheme to promote the welfare of the girl child.
• National Creche Scheme: For children of working mothers.
• Gender Budgeting: Made part of the Union Budget since 2005, allocating funds for women-centric programs.
• Nirbhaya Fund Framework: Non-lapsable corpus fund for women's safety and security initiatives.

Learn more about the Gender Pay Parity!

Role of Women’s Movements & Legal Reforms

Post-independence India witnessed significant legal and social reforms guided by women’s movements:

• The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (1993) secured 33% reservation for women in panchayati raj institutions, bringing thousands of women into local governance, though the phenomenon of “Sarpanchpati”—male relatives exercising control behind the scenes—points to ongoing power asymmetries.
   
• Reform movements by reformers such as Savitribai Phule, Pandita Ramabai, and legislative reforms (e.g., Dowry Prohibition Act, POSH Act 2013, Hindu Succession Amendment 2005) provided legal frameworks for women's rights. Yet gaps in enforcement, patriarchal resistance, and lack of awareness have been causing restrictions in complete realization.

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