Imperialism: Definition, History, Purpose, Features, Types & UPSC Notes

Imperialism means supreme power, "sovereignty," or simply "rule," and is derived from the Latin imperium. The colonisation of the Americas between the 15th and 19th centuries and the growth of the United States, Japan, and the European powers during the late 19th and early 20th centuries are examples of the Age of Imperialism. Throughout history, imperialistic expansion has destroyed numerous indigenous societies and cultures.

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Imperialism is one of the most important topics for the UPSC IAS Examination. You can also register for the best coaching for the history optional and begin your UPSC IAS preparation journey with Testbook. In this article, we will discuss Imperialism, its objectives, the period of Imperialism, the negative and positive aspects of imperialism, and its decline. Join the UPSC coaching today and boost your preparation.

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What is Imperialism?

Imperialism is the policy or practice by which a powerful nation extends its control over other countries or territories, often through military conquest, political dominance, or economic exploitation, to expand its power and influence. It typically involves resource extraction, cultural imposition, and political control.

What is the primary purpose of Imperialism?

Imperialism's primary purpose has always been to expand its host nation's power and economy. Territorial expansion was primarily concerned with promoting economic development by obtaining resources from conquered areas and retaining control through military or political means. One example would be the British colonisation of India.

History of Imperialism

• The history of imperialism dates back centuries and comprises different nations and empires. Ancient empires such as the Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian empires expanded their empire by gaining control over other territories using conquest and colonisation. They may be regarded as the prototypes of imperialism.
• The discovery period during the 15th and 16th centuries brought European powers, including Spain and Portugal, to start conquering and exploiting the Americas, Africa, and Asia lands. The new resource elicited new sources of imperialism, like gold and silver, and it was also seen as a need for a new market where trade could occur. Spaniards and Portuguese built massive empires in the Americas, whereas the Dutch, British, and French developed colonies in Africa and Asia.
• During the 19th century, a new form or trend of imperialism was witnessed in Europe when European powers went in search of fresh raw materials and new markets to sell their industrial products. The scramble for Africa in the late 19th century and the early 20th century was when European powers divided and colonised the African continent.
• Imperialism was also involved in the buildup to World War I as the European powers sought to control land and resources. The falling of the war led to the deconstruction of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires and the redrawn national boundaries in the continent of Europe and the Middle East under the Treaty of Versailles.
• After World War II, imperialism began to decline as former colonies gained independence and new international organisations, such as the United Nations, were established to promote peace and cooperation among nations. However, some forms of neocolonialism and economic imperialism continued, as powerful nations continued to dominate and exploit weaker countries in the Global South.

Features of Imperialism

• Territorial Expansion: One of the characteristics of imperialism is the acquisition of new land in the form of conquest or colonisation. Imperial powers find ways to dominate and exploit the resources of the conquered areas, usually gaining economic benefits.
• Economic Dominance: This economic interest forms a strong bug in imperialism by seeking raw materials, new markets, etc. Unequal trade agreements frequently create a case where the imperial powers expropriate resources in the colonies to exploit them on behalf of their economies.
• Cultural Hegemony: There is also a tendency toward imperialism, which might entail the expansion of the imperial state's prevailing culture or thought structure. It may cause subordination or oblivion of native cultures, traditions and languages.
• Political Control: As a rule, imperial authorities tend to transfer their political system and institutions to their state of domination. It may involve putting in place the puppet governments, suppressing the political opposition and denying political rights and freedoms.
• Military Force: Military power is mainly associated with the imperial powers, which may apply force to control their colonies and crack down on their opponents or rebels in colonies. This may entail using force,ce, and m,artial law.
• Racism and White Supremacy: Imperialism can also be associated with the rationalisation of exploitation and dominance in terms of the supremacy of the imperial state in terms of its culture, race or civilisation over the colonised ones. This may cause the dehumanisation of the colonised societies and marginalisation and justification of violence and oppression.

Types of Imperialism

Examples of Modern Imperialism

• Modern imperialism, which is sometimes derogatorily referred to as "nation-building" or, specifically in the case of the United States, "Americanization," involves the expansion of corporate presence and the dissemination of the political ideology of the dominant nation and is no longer solely focused on securing new trading opportunities.
• Powerful nations like the United States frequently try to prevent other countries from adopting political ideologies that oppose their own, as demonstrated by the domino theory of the Cold War.
• The failed 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion attempt by the United States to topple Fidel Castro's communist government in Cuba, the Reagan Doctrine of President Ronald Reagan, designed to halt the spread of communism, and American involvement in the Vietnam War are frequently used as examples of modern imperialism.
• Countries like Saudi Arabia and China have attempted to expand their global influence by combining a hyper-aggressive foreign policy with limited military intervention.
• Other smaller countries like Iran and North Korea have also been actively enhancing their military capabilities, including their nuclear arsenals, to gain a tactical and economic advantage.
• The United States still has a significant and expanding economic and political influence on many regions of the world, even though its colonial holdings have decreased since traditional imperialism.
• Puerto Rico, Guam, the Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, and American Samoa are the five permanently populated traditional territories or commonwealths that the United States still holds.

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Reasons Behind the Rise of Imperialism

• Economic Reasons: By 1870, European industrialised nations sought global markets to sell surplus products unavailable domestically. Excess capital drove businessmen and bankers to invest in foreign ventures for higher profits, despite risks. Industrial nations sought control over unexplored territories to secure cheap labour and essential raw materials like oil, rubber, and manganese for steel.
• Military and Political Reasons: European nations viewed colonies as essential for military power, national security, and nationalism. Strong navies required bases worldwide for refuelling and supplies, ensuring naval dominance.
• Humanitarian and Religious Goals: Many Westerners believed in civilising non-white populations by introducing Western civilisation, medicine, law, and Christianity. The concept of "The White Man's Burden" inspired this perspective.
• Exploratory Reasons: Imperial explorers sought adventure, aiming to discover, map, and claim territories ahead of rival imperial powers, seeking national and personal glory, and expanding the empire.

Periods of Imperialism

• Large-scale imperialism and aggressive colonialism lasted for three periods in the modern era.
• Empires were established in the Americas, India, and the East Indies between the 15th and the middle of the 18th centuries by England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain.
• Empire-building experienced a nearly century-long relative calm due to strong opposition to imperialism.
• Again, imperialism spread quickly during the period between the middle of the 19th century and World War I (1914-1918)
• Russia, Italy, Germany, Japan, and the United States developed into new imperialistic states as indirect control, particularly financial control, became the preferred form of imperialism over direct military intervention.
• Following World War I, the League of Nations' vision of a peaceful world caused imperialism to halt once more temporarily.
• When Japan invaded China in 1931, it restarted its empire-building efforts.
• The Fascist Party of Benito Mussolini, Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler, and the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin led to a new era of imperialism that dominated the 1930s and 1940s.

The Decline of Imperialism

• Imperialism and nationalism had adverse effects: World War I started in 1914 due to conflicts between nations.
• Germany and Japan tried to build empires after World War I.
• Hitler and Hirohito caused World War II to expand their influence.
• World War II cost many lives and money.
• It weakened imperial nations and ended traditional imperialism.
• Decolonisation was widely practised during the Cold War that followed.
• India and several African colonial states gained independence from Britain. 
• After World War II, the United States and the former Soviet Union emerged as dominant superpowers. At the same time, British imperialism persisted through involvement in events like the 1953 Iranian coup and the 1956 Suez Crisis.
• During the Cold War (1947-1991), the Soviet Union faced severe challenges, leading to its formal disintegration on December 26, 1991. 
• The Soviet economy was ruined, military power became obsolete, and the communist political system collapsed. 
• The dissolution agreement granted independence to the various colonial or "satellite" states of the Soviet empire.
• As the Soviet Union dissolved, the United States emerged as a significant world power and the origin of contemporary imperialism.

Positives & Negatives Of Imperialism

The word "imperialism" has a bad connotation because it refers to a covert or aggressive expansion into hostile territories. It has, however, also helped many smaller nations advance on the development path. The table is given below showing some positives and negatives of imperialism:

What is the main difference between Colonialism and Imperialism?

Colonialism is when a country physically dominates another country to utilise its resources. This can be done through war or diplomatic means. At the same time, Imperialism occurs when one nation works to establish an empire and widen its borders to project power. Colony is derived from the Latin colonies, meaning "to farm." The word "imperialism" is derived from the Latin "imperium," which means "to command." Examples of colonialism include the British occupation of India, Australia, Southern Africa, and Central Africa, as well as the French occupation of Western and North Africa. In contrast, examples of imperialism include the 19th-century race for Africa and China's rule over Vietnam from 111 BC to 983 AD.

Colonialism vs Imperialism

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Conclusion

The term "imperialism," which refers to colonial, territorial, commercial, and militaristic dominance and authority over smaller nations, was first used in the 16th century. However, imperialist trends have persisted for a long time. There are three different types of imperialism. These kinds are influenced by a person's culture and way of life. However, imperialism is dependent on how a government views conventions and laws. Therefore, imperialism has benefits and drawbacks.

After reading this article, we hope all your doubts regarding imperialism will be cleared. You can download the Testbook App now to check out various other topics relevant to the UPSC IAS Exam.