Marxist Theory in International Relations - UPSC PSIR Optional 2025-26

The Marxist theory in International Relations shows a critical window to examine International politics going through class struggle, economic exploitation, and structural inequalities. Unlike mainstream theories such as Realism and Liberalism, Marxism emphasizes how capitalism and imperialism influence international outcomes. It provides students with important tools to understand global power imbalances. For PSIR students, it is a key perspective for interpreting the current world order and its historical roots.

What Will You Learn from This Article? (Relevant for UPSC Mains and PSIR)

❓What are the origins and core ideas of the Marxist theory of the state?

❓How do instrumentalist and structuralist perspectives differ within Marxist theory?

❓What is the relevance of key Marxist thinkers like Marx, Engels, Lenin, Gramsci, and others in PSIR?

❓How does Marxism interpret imperialism, global capitalism, and world order?

❓What are the main criticisms and limitations of the Marxist approach in international politics?

❓What are the various types of Marxist theory, and how are they applicable in contemporary IR?

Marxism Important Revision Points for UPSC PSIR Optional 2025-26 Paper & GS Paper-II

⭐Marxism views the state as a class institution serving capitalist interests.

⭐It is rooted in historical materialism and dialectical materialism.

⭐The state is not neutral; it is a tool of class domination.

⭐Imperialism as the last phase of capitalism (Lenin).

⭐Core-periphery-semi-periphery structure of the global system (Wallerstein).

⭐Critique of mutual development myth in globalization by Dependency Theory.

⭐Instrumentalist perspective (Miliband): state is an immediate instrument of capitalists.

⭐Structuralist perspective (Poulantzas): relative autonomy of the state, shaped by class struggle.

⭐Gramsci’s cultural hegemony shows how consent is manufactured.

⭐Althusser introduced Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) and interpellation.

⭐Robert Cox’s neo-Gramscianism ties hegemony to global institutions and civil society.

⭐Critical Theory (Habermas, Linklater) aims for emancipation and a just global order.

⭐Marxism critiques liberalism and challenges the legitimacy of liberal democracy.

⭐Emphasizes class over state or individual as the main actor in IR.

⭐Promotes the idea of the “withering away” of the state in a communist future.

⭐Criticizes bourgeois democracy as ideological and exploitative.

⭐Offers alternatives to capitalist globalization and corporate imperialism.

⭐Rejects positivist epistemology and promotes post-positivist analysis.

⭐Explains why revolution failed in the West (Gramsci: strong civil society).

⭐Analyzes contemporary capitalism’s crises (e.g., environmental degradation).

⭐Recognizes modern hegemony through culture, ideology, and consent.

Origin of The Marxist Theory

Marxist theory began in the mid-19th century during the industrial revolution in Europe. It is based on historical materialism and developed as a critique of capitalism and liberal ideas. The theory mainly focuses on class conflict, economic exploitation, and the power structures that uphold inequalities in society and international relations.

Historical Materialism and Economic Determinism

Marx and Engels differed in their opinion that societal structures are defined by the mode and relations of production. The state, in this view, is not a natural or neutral entity but a product of evolving class conflicts. It arose to protect private property and the interests of the ruling capitalist class.

Dialectical Materialism vs. Idealism

Unlike Hegel’s dialectical idealism, Marx introduced dialectical materialism and also argued that material conditions which are definitely not ideas, drive historical development. This became the backbone of Marxist theory, where the economic base shapes the political and ideological superstructure.

Class Struggle and the Rise of the State

In Marxist history, class struggle is the main engine of social transformation. As different societies moved from feudalism to capitalism, the state emerged as an instrument to manage and institutionalize the dominance of the bourgeoisie over the proletariat.

The State and the Bourgeois Order

Marxists valued the state as an executive committee of the ruling class, upholding bourgeois interests in legal, military, and bureaucratic institutions. This state sustains itself not through consent alone but also through coercive apparatuses.

Instrumentalist Perspective of Marxism

An Instrumentalist views the state as a direct tool used by the capitalist class to control society and maintain their dominance over it. Instrumentalism upholds the classical Marxist belief in the unity of class and state power.

State as a Tool of Capitalist Class

The state functions as a tool of imposing the will of the dominant class, safeguarding private property and capitalist interests. For instance, Laws, policy structures, and institutions are constructed with the aim of providing the state as an instrument of the capitalist class.

Economic Determinism

Instrumentalists contend that all political choices are based on economic necessities. From taxation to labor legislation, state actions demonstrate the needs of capital accumulation.

Role of Crisis and Stability

In times of social or economic crisis, the state steps in to shore up capitalism, usually under the pretext of the public interest, while safeguarding fundamental capitalist interests.

Role of Propaganda and Legitimacy

In order to retain legitimacy, the state employs ideological mechanisms—media, education, and religion—to legitimize exploitation and suppress class consciousness from surfacing.

Relative Autonomy (Within Instrumentalism)

Thinkers like Ralph Miliband recognize that the state might not always act in a simplistic way for the capitalist class but does so in a structurally supportive manner, maintaining the long-term stability of the capitalist system.

Structural Perspective of Marxism

Structuralists, and especially intellectuals such as Gramsci and Poulantzas, contend that the state possesses relative autonomy and cannot simply be equated with a tool of the capitalist class.

Bonapartism and State Autonomy

The Marxist theory of the Bonapartist state illustrates how the state may move autonomously when class forces are in deadlock. The state in these situations mediates among classes but ends up maintaining capitalist hegemony.

Gramsci’s Civil and Political Society

Gramsci makes a distinction between civil society (consent) and political society (coercion). The ruling class gains and holds power through hegemonic ideologies without direct coercion, through schools, media, religion, and cultural norms.

Althusser’s Ideological State Apparatus

Louis Althusser highlighted how people are called into subject positions within ruling-class ideology through the institutions of education, religion, and media—that is, a "false consciousness."

Poulantzas and Relative Autonomy

Poulantzas opposed the perception that state power is a direct reflection of class power. The state, according to his structuralist explanation, serves capitalist interests but also represents a field of class struggle and crisis regulation.

Gramscian Hegemony in IR

Neo-Gramscian thinkers like Robert Cox extended Gramsci’s ideas to international relations, analyzing how global hegemony is constructed and maintained through institutions like the IMF and World Bank that naturalize capitalist norms.

UPSC Mains PYQs on Marxist Theory in PSIR Optional and GS Paper-II

🎯Comment: Marxist approach to international politics. (2002, Paper II)

🎯Do you agree with the notion that Marxist approach to the study of International relations is largely based on economic reductionism? Give reasons. (2008, Paper II)

🎯Does the perspective of Dependency Theory offer a robust critique on the nature of mainstream development processes taking place in Africa and Latin America? (2012, Paper II)

🎯How does Marxist approach explain contemporary International Relations? (2013, Paper II)

🎯Explain the relevance of the Marxist approach in the context of globalization. (2019, Paper II)

🎯“Marxist approach to the study of international relations has lost its relevance in the post-cold war era.” Comment. (2021, Paper II)

🎯Discuss the commonalities between the Marxist and Realist approach to the study of International Politics. (2022, Paper II)

Prominent Thinkers of Marxist Theory

Marxist theory has developed over a number of thinkers over time who modified its essence to suit various periods in history.

Karl Marx

German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary who laid the foundation of Marxism.

Main Ideas:

• State as an instrument of class oppression.
• Historical materialism as a method of analysis.
• Revolution and eventual stateless, classless society.

Antonio Gramsci

Italian Marxist who introduced cultural hegemony.

Main Ideas:

• Civil and political society distinction.
• Hegemony through ideology and culture.
• Role of consent in sustaining capitalist dominance.

Vladimir Lenin

Leader of the Russian Revolution, expanded Marxist theory to include imperialism and party leadership.

Main Ideas:

• Imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism.
• Lenin viewed dictatorship of the proletariat as a transitional phase.
• The Role of a vanguard party in revolution.

Friedrich Engels

Co-founder of Marxist theory, collaborator of Marx.

Main Ideas:

• State as a product of class antagonism.
• Emphasis on the economic base and class struggle.
• Predicted the eventual withering away of the state.

Ralph Miliband

British sociologist, known for instrumentalist theory.

Main Ideas:

• The state acts as an instrument of the capitalist class.
• Critique of pluralism and liberal state neutrality.
• Class character of political and administrative elites.

Nicos Poulantzas

French sociologist who introduced structuralist Marxism.

Main Ideas:

• The state has relative autonomy.
• Political power is not always synonymous with class power.
• State is a site of class struggle.

Contemporary Perspective of Marxist Theory

Current Marxist thought responds to changing global power relations without losing fundamental class-based analysis. The principal issues are:

• Corporate Globalization and State Capture - States become more beholden to capitalist elites, responding to corporate, rather than public, interests.
• Cultural Imperialism through Media and Education - Hegemonic ideologies are disseminated by media and education to shape consent and reinforce capitalist dominance.
• Global Economic Inequality and Neocolonialism - Peripheral states are exploited by core countries through uneven trade, continuing dependency and underdevelopment.
• Fading State Sovereignty under Transnational Capitalism - Transnational institutions and markets constrain state autonomy to align national policies along capitalist interests.
• Survival of Class Conflict under Neoliberal Regimes - Regardless of liberal discourse, neoliberalism perpetuates class inequality and systemic exploitation.

Types of Marxist Theory

Classical Marxism

Established by Marx and Engels, it is based on economic determinism, class conflict, and ultimately the emergence of a classless society by revolution. The state is an instrument of the ruling class, and capitalism must be destroyed.

Leninism

Formulated by Lenin, it builds on classical Marxism by adding the study of imperialism. It focuses on a vanguard party to guide the proletarian revolution and identifies imperialism as a phase of monopoly capitalism.

Maoism

Rooted in Chinese socio-political context, Maoism emphasized the revolutionary role of the peasantry, protracted people's war, and class struggle as a continuous process even after revolution.

Gramscian Marxism

Highlights ideological and cultural dimensions of power. Gramsci’s theory of hegemony explains how consent is manufactured through civil society which makes revolution more difficult in liberal democracies.

Criticism of Marxist Approach

Excessive Economic Determinism - Critics argue Marxism oversimplifies complex realities by attributing all political and social outcomes to economic structures.

Ignoring Non-Class Identities - Marxism is often accused of neglecting gender, race, religion, and ethnicity as axes of power and conflict.

Authoritarian Tendencies - Historical implementations (e.g., Soviet Union) showed how Marxist revolutions could devolve into oppressive regimes.

Unrealistic Utopianism - The idea of a stateless, classless society is often considered idealistic and impractical for diverse modern societies.

Underestimation of State Autonomy - Traditional Marxism is criticised for ignoring the state's potential to act independently or in broader public interest.

Inapplicability to Modern Globalized World - With transnational capitalism, global institutions, and post-industrial economies, some argue classical Marxist categories need revisiting.

Critic Nature of Criticism

This thorough grasp of Marxist theory in international relations provides UPSC aspirants with analytical theoretical tools and practical applicability. The discussed perspectives are not mere theoretical lenses but provide profound insights into global contemporary dynamics—crucial for mastering PSIR Optional and writing rich analytical answers in UPSC Mains.

Important Books on Marxist Theory (UPSC PSIR Optional & GS Paper II)

Here is a list of most important Marxist Theory books that are relevant to the latest UPSC Mains and GS Paper-II Syllabus and highly preferred by UPSC aspirants.

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