Partition of India: History, Theory, Impact & Legacy - UPSC Notes

Syllabus	General Studies - Paper I
Topics for Prelims	Two-Nation Theory, Indian National Congress (INC), Muslim League
Topics for Mains	Long-term effects of partition on India-Pakistan relations

In 1947, the Partition of India, resulting in the establishment of two self-governing states, was a realisation of a series of events which took place in the Indian national movement. British Divide and Rule policy, which started as a means of fostering tension between the former Indian kings, grew to the level of the Indian social fabric in the 20th century. This policy sowed the seeds of a communal seed that would later grow to flower in the 1940s by Jinnah and the league in India in the form of Pakistan, a nation of its belonging to its own Muslims.

The partition of india notes is one of the most important topics for the UPSC IAS Examination. It covers a significant part of the Modern History subject in the General Studies Paper-1 syllabus.

In this article, partition of india notes, we are going to discuss the historical background of the Partition of India. These events led to the partition, whether these were the August offer, the Elections of 1946, Direct Action Day, and much more—regions affected by the Partition and the Legacy of Partition of India.

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About the Partition of India

The Partition of India in 1947 has a significant place in the history of South Asia. In this instance, British India would be splitting up into two independent states, India and Pakistan, creating a divide in the real sense between the two countries because it would act upon religious lines, rejecting such ideas by declaring India a Hindu nation, and coming into existence, Pakistan as a separate domain in the world for Muslims. The partition was a response to growing religious tensions and demands for individual nations.

The process was marked by violence and mass migrations as millions of people moved between the two new nations. The partition led to one of the largest and most tragic human migrations in history, accompanied by communal riots and interreligious conflict. The partition's legacy continues to impact the region, with ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan, particularly over the disputed region of Kashmir.

History of the Partition of India

When the Partition of Bengal took place on a religious basis, it can be claimed that the seeds for the Partition of India were planted. Lord Curzon, the Viceroy, was forced to change his mind after widespread outrage and protests.

At the Congress Session in Lucknow in 1916, the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League engaged in unprecedented cooperation under the Lucknow Pact.

It was triggered by the Muslim League's concerns that the British government's "religious neutrality" was fake. In order to achieve greater self-government, the Muslim League joined Congress. In exchange, Congress agreed to separate electorates for Muslims in both the provincial legislatures and the Imperial Legislative Council. The Lucknow Pact was eventually signed in 1916, though the full ramifications of the accord emerged during the subsequent years.

A small group of Muslim elites from the states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar was thought to benefit more from the agreement than the Muslim majorities in Punjab and Bengal. Despite this obvious truth, the agreement was hailed as a significant turning point in the Indian Independence Movement. 

Read the article on the List of Indian National Congress Sessions & their Presidents!

The Two-Nation Theory played a key role in the partition of British India in 1947. According to the theory, Hindus and Muslims form two separate nations with distinct identities, cultures, and interests. This was based on the premise that these two communities could not live together in peace as one unpartitioned country.

The theory gained increasing support during the early 20th century with the mounting demands for separate representation for Muslims in the political institutions of India. Its active advocates were the All India Muslim League leaders under Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

The supporters of this theory contended that Muslims and Hindus were different in their religious beliefs and social customs, as well as their historical backgrounds. They argued that Muslims needed a separate nation to protect their rights and interests, since they feared having their voice drowned out in a united India consisting of a Hindu majority.

• The theory was at its zenith in the 1940s when the Muslim League passed the Lahore Resolution 1940, calling for the establishment of an independent Muslim state. It gained traction and broad support among Muslims, and especially in the northwestern and northeastern areas of India where they were a majority.
• As the demand for a separate Muslim state intensified, the British government and political leaders realised that the division of India was inevitable. The partition led to the creation of two independent nations: the Union of India (which became the Republic of India later) and the Dominion of Pakistan (which eventually became the Islamic Republic of Pakistan).
• Partition caused widespread rampages and mass migration of millions, leading to the death of millions and displacement of millions as well. The repercussions of partition are still a painful chapter in the history of both India and Pakistan.

Read the article on the List of Indian National Congress Sessions & their Presidents!

Events that Led to the Partition of India

The British "Divide and Rule policy was a significant cause of the partition of India, and on the basis of this policy, many events took place. Partition of Bengal in 1905, Separate electoral to Muslims in 1909, Lucknow Pact in 1916, the introduction of the two-nation theory in 1924, Provincial elections in 1937, August Offer 1940, Quit India Resolution, the election of 1946, Cabinet Mission, and finally, Mountbatten Plan were the significant events that led to the Partition of India.

British Divide-and-Rule policy

The British applied this policy to break the nationalist movement in India. Some examples under this strategy are as follows:

• It's the financing of the leadership of the Muslim League.
• Consideration of separate electorate in 1909, 1919 and the Communal award in 1932.
• It's awarding of "a virtual veto power to the League" during World War II.
• Its idea & criteria of grouping in the Cabinet Mission Plan, etc.

Growth of Communalism in India

Communalism was on the rise at the end of the 19th century in India, and it increased because of numerous reasons. Sad to say, it all reached the climax as India was divided along religious lines.

Reasons: 

• Muslims' socio-economic backwardness.
• The revivalistic charge of the Socio-cultural reform movements.
• The ideas germinated to provide that Hindus and Muslims did not have the same self-interest.
• During its tenure, the British Policy of divide and rule.
• Contribution of personalities such as Iqbal, Jinnah and certain Hindu nationalists.
• League and Jinnah, following the defeat of the 1937 elections and the Pakistan Resolution, 1940.The success of the Muslim League in the 1946 elections.

Key Events: 

• Partition of Bengal (1905): It was initially an administrative act, but it soon turned into a massive political advantage to the government since it aimed at separating Bengal into provinces governed by Hindu and Muslim majorities.
• Muslim League (1906): All India Muslim League was made up of upper-class Muslim elites, such as Aga Khan, Nawab of Dacca or Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.
• Separate Electorates (1909): Separate Electorate in the Morley-Minto reforms was a historic change to the history of communalism in the legislature.
• Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress accepted separate electorates as a compromise to get the support of the Muslim League in the national movement.
• The Hindu Mahasabha (1915) and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (1925): These Hindu-nationalist organisations emerged as a pressure group growing after the number of debates between the INC and the Muslim League.
• Simon Commission and Nehru Report: The Nehru Report attempted to meet the demands of Jinnah, but this fell through in the Conference of 1928. Jinnah unveiled his Fourteen Points.
• The immediate cause of the partition being acceptable was communal riots in 1946: With the call of Jinnah, such riots were experienced.

Role of the Muslim League and Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Jinnah was a key player in the division of India, even though he started as a champion of secularism and a denialist who rejected communal politics.

Jinnah's role:

Despite this, there are scholars (especially Ayesha Jalal of Pakistan and her advocates) who claim that Jinnah's insistence on a separate state was just a bargaining chip with Congress. According to this introductory belief, he desired an individual state and not an Islamic particularisation for Muslims.

• Yet, it is difficult to digest this thought due to numerous reasons.
• Those who fancied a separate nation were Muslim landlords (in Sindh and other parts of Pakistan) and political elites opposed to the concentration of power by the Congress over socialist democracy.
• Jinnah rejected every discussion between the British officials and Indians. He and the league were interested in speaking alone as the representatives of the Muslims in India, which Congress or any other secular party could not have given.
• Moreover, his declaration on the Direct Action Day was inhumane and ended the assumption of his being a liberal Muslim.

Towards Mass Communalism: 

The lesson of the defeat in the 1937 election result went home to Jinnah and the League. Following the year 1937, Jinnah now made maximisation of the membership of the league, communalisation of the masses and intensification of the demands of Pakistan his priority.

Two-Nation theory: 

He was a fanatic adherent of the Two-Nation Theory, which held that the two communities could not live together.

• The Aligarh school of thought seeded this thought in India, was seconded by Iqbal and some Hindu Nationalists in the 1930s, and was eventually used by Jinnah.
• Jinnah excelled in his communalism propaganda, citing the socio-economic conditions of the Muslims and planting the fear of the so-called Hindu domination post-independence.
• And this is reflective of the winning of the Muslim League of the Muslim seats in the 1946 elections.

Socio-economic factors

Several socio-economic issues in the 19th and 20th centuries led to calls for a Muslim state and eventually the Indian Partition.

• Muslim backwardness in economics: Muslims were less literate and lacked proper representation in the industry/commerce fields, thus making them economically backwards. Pakistan was viewed as a means of elevating the economic status of Muslims only.
• Fear of Hindu economic control: Muslims felt that their economic gains would not be taken care of in Hindu-majority India and desired Pakistan to have more access to resources and opportunities.
• Landed elite desire to rule: The landed Muslim elite in Punjab/Bengal regarded Pakistan as a chance to have larger economic control and an ambition for power.
• Urdu-Hindi rift: Disagreement on the national language widened the rifts. The proposals of Hindi antagonised Muslims as they preferred Urdu; this language barrier aggravated conflict among the communities.

The British in the 1940s

This change of the British stand was mainly as a result of the effects of the Second World War, particularly due to the exploits that Japan had in Southeast Asia.

• They now required Indian support of the war, but on the other hand, did not think twice to support Jinnah's demand for Pakistan.
• The veto power to the Muslim League was implicitly given by Linlithgow and other Viceroys in all rounds of negotiations in the constitutional reforms, as well as the transfer of power.
• The demand of Pakistan was first utilised to deny the demand for complete Independence by the Congress and then to weaken these two former colonies as much as possible.

Lahore Resolution

Jinnah favoured the two-nation theory in 1940 in Lahore. A. K. The resolution was put forward by Fazl-ul-Huq during the general sitting commonly referred to as the Lahore Resolution. It was an official document that aimed to establish a Muslim state of its own.

• Pak-Stan was created by Choudhry Rahmat Ali, a student at Cambridge University in the 1930s.

August Offer and Churchill's Proposal During 1940–1942

The "August Offer" stated that a future constitution will take minorities' perspectives into account in order to satisfy Muslim concerns over Hindu dominance. The offer was turned down in September by the Muslim League and Congress, respectively, and Congress began a campaign of civil disobedience once more.

When the Japanese began rapidly advancing along the Malayan Peninsula in 1942, Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, sent a message offering India dominion status at the end of the war in exchange for the Congress's assistance in the war effort. The Congress, which considered itself to be the voice of all Indians of all faiths, likewise opposed the plans.

Quit India Resolution of 1942

Congress passed the Quit India Resolution in August 1942, calling for significant constitutional changes that the British perceived as the biggest challenge to their authority. The anxious British detained the Congress leaders immediately, while the Muslim League was free for the following three years to propagate its message. The Muslim League's membership increased throughout the war, and with its desire for Pakistan, the Muslim League clashed with both the British and the Congress.

Cripps Mission 1942

In the background against the collapse of the August Offer and the necessity to win Indian assistance in World War II, a Mission composed of three members of the British cabinet, Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander, was sent to India.

Proposals:

• Conferment of Kingdom Status on India to become free to determine its association with the Commonwealth and the United Nations.
• After the Second World War, a fresh constitution would be drafted by a constituent assembly that was composed of only Indians. The members would, in part, be elected (provinces) and, in part, be appointed (princely states).
• A province which was not ready to have an association with the Dominion was able to have a different union with a distinctive constitution.
• The minorities would have the rights preserved by both the Constituent Assembly and the British government.
• The British monopoly in the defence of India and the power wielded by the Governor-General would not be constrained till the constitution was prepared.

Failure:

• Congress declined the proposal of Dominion status and independence of provinces (and this would have been the balkanisation of India).
• It was rejected because it lacked an apparent concession to Pakistan, and thus the League rejected it.

Rajagopalachari Formula 1944

The Rajagopalachari Formula contained the following significant points:

• Muslim League so that they could cooperate with the Congress that demanded independence, and cooperate in forming a provisional government in the centre.
• A commission would demarcate the districts that had an absolute Muslim majority after the war, and then elections (among non-Muslims as well) would be held on whether they wanted to have their state.
• A mutual control of defence, trade, communication, etc., in case the partition would be accepted.

Gandhi-Jinnah Talks:

• During September 1944, Gandhi met with Jinnah to table the proposals, but the discussion was termed a fiasco.

Desai-Liaquat Pact 1945

It was an effort to conciliate the League and to get out of the political impasses. No official endorsement of the proposal was given either by the Congress or the League.

• Equality in nomination to the Central legislature by the two parties of an equal number of people.
• Reserved seats (20 per cent) in the central legislature for the minorities.

Wavell Plan 1945

Viceroy Lord Wavell, in 1945, welcomed everyone to be a part of the Shimla Conference.

Proposals: 

• Everyone in the executive council, other than the administrator-in-chief and the commander-in-chief, was to be an Indian.
• The control over all the portfolios, barring Defence, was to be vested with the Indian members.
• Of the proposed 14-member Executive Council, the 6 post positions went to the Muslims who made up approximately 25 % of the overall population.

Failure: 

• According to Jinnah, it is the Muslim League that is capable of representing Indian Muslims.
• According to Congress, the Muslim League had no right whatsoever to determine the appointment of any Muslim into the Executive Council.

Elections 1945-1946

That was the year of the elections in 1945, when there was a struggle between the League and the Congress.

Great victory of the League: 

• The League achieved spectacular achievements in terms of getting 86.6 per cent of the Muslim votes, sweeping all 30 Muslim seats in the Central Legislative Assembly and capturing 442 out of 509 Muslim seats in the provinces.
• It also lost NWFP and Assam to the Congress and was unable to overturn the Unionists, who held the balance of power in Punjab.

Congress's performance:

• In the General (non-Muslim) constituencies, Congress achieved a smashing success, as it gained 91.3 per cent of the votes, covering 57 out of 102 seats in the Central Legislative Assembly and led in all the provinces with the exception of Sind, Punjab and Bengal.

Cabinet Mission of July 1946

Britain created the Cabinet Mission Plan as India's two major parties were unable to agree. With this mission, Britain attempted to fulfil Jinnah's demand for a Pakistan through "groupings" while also maintaining the undivided India that they and Congress wished.

A federal system made up of three groups of provinces was contained in the Cabinet mission framework. The majority-Muslim provinces would make up two of these divisions, and the majority-Hindu territories would make up the third grouping. The provinces would have complete autonomy, but the centre would continue to be in charge of communications, foreign policy, and defence. The Muslim League approved the recommendations, whereas the Congress leaders, especially Nehru, thought it would leave the Centre weak even if the unity of India had been preserved. Finally, the Cabinet mission proposal was rejected.

Direct Action Day of August 1946

Jinnah declared August 16, 1946, Direct Action Day with the stated demand for a Muslim nation in British India after the Cabinet Mission failed. The celebration of Direct Action Day was directly linked to the outbreak of the cycle of violence. It would later be known as the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946" by Muslim returning celebrants who attacked Hindus in Calcutta that very evening. The following day, Hindus retaliated, and the rioting lasted for three days, during which time both Hindus and Muslims killed an estimated 4,000 deaths (according to official sources).

The Calcutta killings were the first to exhibit signs of "ethnic cleansing," even though there had previously been incidents of religious violence in India between Hindus and Muslims. The communal unrest spread to Bihar, where Hindus attacked Muslims, and Noakhali in Bengal, where Muslims targeted Hindus.

Plan for Partition During 1946-1947

In order to avoid partition and maintain a United India, Lord Louis Mountbatten was appointed as India's final Viceroy by British Prime Minister Attlee. He was given the responsibility of overseeing British India's independence by 30 June 1948. Despite his original desire to keep the centre together, the tight communal atmosphere led him to believe that separation was required for a more rapid transfer of power.

One of the first Congressmen to support the partition of India as a solution to the growing Muslim separatist movement was Vallabhbhai Patel. He had been horrified by Jinnah's Direct Action campaign, which had sparked communal bloodshed throughout India. According to Patel, the continued existence of a weak and divided central government would encourage the independence of more than 600 princely kingdoms, further dividing India. He received criticism for his perceived eagerness for the partition from Gandhi, Nehru, secular Muslims, and socialists.

Proposal of the Indian Independence Act

Sardar Patel voiced his agreement and urged J. Nehru and other Congress leaders to accept the plan when Lord Mountbatten formally suggested it on June 3, 1947. He was aware of Gandhi's intense distress over the idea of partition and held private sessions with Gandhi. There, he oversaw the split of public property and chose the Indian Council of Ministers alongside Nehru. But neither he nor any other Indian leader had imagined the level of bloodshed and demographic shift that would accompany partition.

British sovereignty over India was to end in June 1948, according to a decision made by the Labour government in Britain. The new Viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the deadline, giving fewer than six months to come up with a mutually acceptable plan for independence and partition of India, since the British army was unprepared for the possibility of greater bloodshed.

Read the Full Article on India After Independence here!

Radcliffe Line 

The Radcliffe Line is a significant border that divides India and Pakistan. It was drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a British lawyer, in 1947 during the process of partitioning British India into two separate countries – India and Pakistan.

During that time, when India gained independence from British rule, it was decided that there would be a separate country for Muslims, which later became Pakistan. The Radcliffe Line was drawn to determine the boundary between the two newly created nations based on religious demographics.

Sir Cyril Radcliffe had the challenging task of drawing the border, even though he had never been to India before. He was given just five weeks to complete this complicated task. The line he drew aimed to separate regions with predominantly Muslim populations from those with mainly Hindu and Sikh populations.

The Radcliffe Line caused massive population movements as people tried to move to the country where their religion was the majority. This migration resulted in a tragic and chaotic period with widespread violence and loss of lives. The border was not without controversies and disputes. There were disagreements and conflicts between India and Pakistan over various regions that lay near the Radcliffe Line. Some of these disputes, like the ones over Kashmir and Sir Creek, persist today.

Independence of India in 1947

Muhammad Ali Jinnah was sworn in as Pakistan's first Governor-General on August 14, 1947, in Karachi. On the following day, August 15, 1947, India, now the Dominion of India, attained independence. The ceremonial celebrations took hold in New Delhi, and Viceroy Mountbatten continued to serve as the nation's first Governor-General. Gandhi stayed in Bengal to assist the new subcontinental refugees after the partition of India.

Read the article on the India-Pakistan Relations!

Mountbatten Plan (The June 3, 1947 Plan)

The "Mountbatten Plan," as it has come to be known, was used to split British India between the two new dominions. On June 3, 1947, Mountbatten announced it at a press conference along with the date of independence, August 15, 1947, and the Partition of India.

Provisions of the Mountbatten Plan

• In the legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab, Sikhs, Hindus, and Muslims would gather and vote in favour of partition. These provinces would be partitioned if a simple majority of either group desired it.
• Sind and Balochistan were allowed to choose whatever dominion they wished to be a part of, on their own.
• A referendum was to be held to determine the future of the Sylhet district of Assam and the Northwest Frontier Province.
• Bengal's independent status was disregarded.
• A boundary commission was established to determine the frontiers. On June 2, the Indian authorities approved the proposal. The future of the princely states was discussed.
• On June 3, Mountbatten gave them advice that joining one of the two dominions would be wiser, while remaining independent would be useless. Thus, the demands for a separate state made by the Muslim League were granted.
• Mountbatten planned to divide the country while preserving as much of its cohesiveness as feasible.
• The dominions of Pakistan and India were established on August 14 and 15, respectively, with the passage of the Indian Independence Act of 1947.

Read the article on the Lahore Resolution!

Regions Affected by Partition

Some of the regions that were majorly affected by the Partition of India were:

Punjab

The former British province of Punjab was divided during the partition of British India. The majority of the Hindu and Sikh eastern regions became India's East Punjab state, while the predominantly Muslim western region became Pakistan's Punjab province. Many people were uprooted due to the partition, leading to inter-communal violence. Some have described the violence in Punjab as a vengeful genocide.

Bengal

Bengal province was at first split into West Bengal (in India) and East Bengal (in Pakistan). Subsequently, East Bengal became part of East Pakistan and won independence as Bangladesh after the war of liberation in Bangladesh in 1971. Although having a greater number of Muslims, areas such as Murshidabad and Malda on the right bank of the Ganges were allocated to India. Chittagong Hill Tracts and Khulna District were handed over to Pakistan.

Sindh

Sindh's affluent upper and middle class, mainly Hindu at the time of partition, lived there. Urban areas like Hyderabad, Karachi, Shikarpur, and Sukkur had a significant Hindu population. Few Hindus migrated initially, but the situation started changing in late 1947 and early 1948.

Chittagong Hill Tracts

The sparsely populated Chittagong Hill Tracts, with a 98.5 per cent Buddhist population in 1947, were granted to Pakistan. It provided the Muslim-dominated Chittagong with a hinterland as it was situated on Bengal's eastern border.

Read the article on Communal Politics in India!

Congress and Partition

The Congress made efforts to unite all elements of society. Still, the separate electorates, the obstinacy of Jinnah and communal and reactionary domination in the League triggered the division of the sub-continent.

• Congress miscarried trying to convince Jinnah to drop his aforementioned dream and/or trying to convince the British not to assist Jinnah in doing that action.
• Muslim League initially tried to be accommodated by Congress via the Lucknow Pact, the convergence of NCM-Khilafat, etc.. Still, Congress afterwards failed to accommodate the League, particularly during World War II.
• The Congress could not even appeal to the Muslim masses and thus had to swallow the whims of the majority of the Indian Muslims, which, however unreasonable and communal the demand may be.
• The Direct Action Day by Jinnah compelled Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, who was followed shortly by Nehru and most of the Congress leaders, to realise that there was no other way except partitioning that could help in breaking the raging bloodshed.
• Gandhi never supported the idea of the partition of India until his last moment, but at some point, he also realised that he had no choice.
• Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Maulana Azad were the two opponents when the So-called June 3rd Plan (Mountbatten Plan) was acknowledged by the CWC.
• Neither Congress nor Gandhi surrendered to the Two-Nation theory, yet they accepted the Partition of India. This is clear from the fact that the Indian polity after independence was implicit/explicit and secular.

Impact of the Partition of India on Indian Society and Culture

The Partition of India in 1947 had a significant impact on Indian society and culture. Here are the key effects:

• Mass Migration: Millions of people were made to leave their homes and migrate to India or Pakistan based on their religion. The fate brought Hindus and Sikhs to India, while Pakistan brought Muslims.
• Communal Violence: The partition proved to be a cause for the unleashing of widespread, brutal violence between the Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. This claimed the lives of many people, and a series of fiery riots and strikes occurred in the country.
• Loss of Houses and Properties: Hundreds of people left their countries only to discover that they had lost houses, farms, and property somewhere along the way. Families have been torn asunder; some now sit in refugee camps.
• Cultural Disruption: The communities that lived in close proximity for centuries were suddenly living outside one another. This disrupted cultural ties, cultural traditions, and lifestyles that were common and shared.
• Identity Crisis: New national identities were thrust on people, forcing them to adjust to being part of a new country with different languages, customs, and values.
• Economic Consequence: The partition affected trade, industries, and agriculture, all pointing towards economic instability. In migration, people lost livelihoods and resources.
• Permanent Tensions: The partition established built-in tensions between India and Pakistan, which eventually turned into conflicts that continue to create problems in their relations.

Read the article on India's Relations with Neighbouring Countries!

Legacy of the Partition of India

In the Indian subcontinent, there is still a lot of anger and conflict because of the partition, which was a very controversial decision. When Lord Mountbatten became Viceroy, a significant civil conflict was looming.

• Historians say that the hurried departure of the British led to many atrocities during the partition, as they wanted to avoid a violent situation. India and Pakistan were responsible for maintaining law and order after they gained independence due to the partition.
• The two countries could not initiate any resettlement operations of significance, although both sides attempted to protect minorities. The riots and massacres made a hazardous journey to safety for countless people, thus becoming one of the largest migrations in history.
• Some people in England maintain that the partition meant the end for the British Empire as a world power; the famous quotation illustrating Curzon's views was that "the loss of India would imply that Britain descends right away to a third rate power."

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