Rowlatt Act (1919): Background, Purpose, Features, Effects & UPSC Notes

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and The Rowlatt Act of 1919 were prominent and devastating events in Indian history. While the Rowlatt Act is known as the black Act, the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre marks one of the black days in the history of India. The Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council. Through this Act, the British intended to replace the repressive provisions employed during wartime (Defence of India Act 1915) with a permanent one. Since the Act introduced several unjust clauses, it was resented by the masses across the country. The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre was an incident in which a large group of unarmed Indians were fired at and massacred by British troops. The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre was a significant turning point in India's independence struggle.

The Rowlatt Act of 1919 and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre is a topic relevant to the UPSC CSE context under General Studies Paper I. It covers a significant part of the Medieval History subject in the UPSC GS Paper 1 Syllabus and current events of international importance in UPSC prelims. The Rowlatt Act of 1919 and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre is an essential topic for UPSC Civil Services because it highlights the Rowlatt Act of 1919 and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, which are frequently discussed in the exam. The Rowlatt Act of 1919 and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre is significant from the perspective of UPSC IAS Examinations for both prelims and mains. In this article, we shall discuss in detail the Rowlatt Act of 1919 and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in detail. Join UPSC Coaching today to boost your preparation. 

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The repressive Rowlatt Act, also known as the "Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919," shook the foundations of British imperialism and united millions of Indians across divisions of religion, caste, and class. The Rowlatt Satyagraha 1919 marked a noteworthy milestone in India's freedom struggle. It was the first large-scale organized application of Mahatma Gandhi's pioneering strategy of nonviolent civil disobedience on a national level against British repression.

However, brutal suppression of protests, particularly the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, led to the Rowlatt satyagraha reaching its peak, marking a turning point in India's struggle for Independence.

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Rowlatt Commission:

The Rowlatt Commission was set up in 1917 by the British government in India to investigate revolutionary activities. Headed by Justice Sidney Rowlatt, it recommended extending emergency powers to curb political unrest, leading to the Rowlatt Act of 1919, which allowed detention without trial and triggered widespread protests across India.

• The Rowlatt Commission was appointed by the British Government in 1918.
• Sir Sidney Rowlatt, the British Judge, headed the committee. Other committee members were J.D.V. Hodge, Basil Scott, Verney Lovett, P.C. Mitter, and C.V.Kumaraswami Sastri.
• The committee was appointed to investigate the revolutionary movements in India and the internment policy.
• The Rowlatt Committee recommended the Imperial Legislative Council deport or imprison the revolutionists for two years without trial.

Provisions Of the Rowlatt Act

The Rowlatt Act allowed the British government in India to detain individuals without trial, conduct secret trials, and restrict press freedom. It was aimed at suppressing nationalist movements and civil liberties. Significant provisions of the Rowlatt Act of 1919 are as follows,

• The Act allowed the government to detain and arrest without trial any person suspected of terrorist activities, sedition, or promoting "disaffection" against British rule in India.
• The Act authorized the government to prohibit public gatherings and movements and to censor the press.
• The Act allowed the government to detain suspects without trial for two years.
• The Act established special tribunals, composed of British judges, to try those accused of violating the Act.
• The Act empowered the government to confiscate the property and assets of anyone suspected of terrorist activities or promoting sedition.
• This Act required the tribunals to accept all forms of evidence, including those that the Indian Evidences Act deems unacceptable.
• The colonial government had the authority to impose severe restrictions on the media and revolutionary activities.

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Rowlatt Satyagraha

Against this backdrop, Mahatma Gandhi gave a call to the nation to come together in disciplined protests against this unjust law. He urged Indians to peacefully show united opposition through Hartals, economic boycotts and non-cooperation. The first major public protest was organised on March 30, 1919, and came to be known as the Rowlatt Satyagraha. The Rowlatt Act was opposed vehemently by the nationalists and the general public. There was rage and resentment against the colonial government across the country.

• The elected Indian representatives of the Imperial Legislative Council, such as Madan Mohan Malaviya, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, and Mazhar Ul Haq, resigned after voting against the bill.
• Mahatma Gandhi was highly unsatisfied with the provisions of the Rowlatt Act. He initiated the Satyagraha movement opposing the Act and founded the Satyagraha Sabha in February 1919.
• He insisted on the political support of peasants and artisans and called for a mass protest at the Pan India level. They opposed the Rowlatt Act by observing nationwide hartals, strikes, fasting, peaceful demonstrations, and civil disobedience.
• However, even before the Satyagraha was launched, several anti-British demonstrations and uprisings occurred in several parts of the country. 
• During such demonstrations, Punjab witnessed the worst violence ever, the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.

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Rowlatt Act 1919 - Key Features

The British government was worried about the danger of terrorism and revolutionary activity, and the Rowlatt Act was seen as a way to stop these threats. The Rowlatt Act had several features that Indians widely criticized.

• The draconian Act suspended fundamental civil liberties.
• It enabled imprisonment without trial for up to 2 years of purported political agitators.
• No plea was permitted against such administrative detention.
• It authorized camera trials without juries for sedition cases, hardly compromising judicial clarity and justice.
• Tighter censorship, control of extremist publications, and restrictions on public meetings were introduced.

What was the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

As part of Mahatma Gandhi's Rowlatt satyagraha, the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre of 1919 is framed as one of the most pathetic and pivotal occurrences in the history of British India. This brutal Act of violence by British forces against Indian civilians marked a noteworthy turning point in the Indian independence movement. In 1951, the Government of India established a memorial at Jallianwala Bagh to honor the spirit of Indian revolutionaries and those who died in the brutal massacre.

Background of Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

Several demonstrations were against the Rowlatt Act of 1919 in March and April 1919. The British government used all available tools to end these rallies and protests. On April 9, 1919, Dr. Satyapal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew were ordered to be arrested by Sir Michael O'Dwyer, Punjab's Lieutenant Governor at the time. The two Indian nationalists who participated in the nonviolent demonstrations were detained and deported.

As a result, the protestors became angry. On April 10, 1919, angry protesters marched to Mr Irwin's house and yelled for the release of Drs. Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew. The police suddenly opened fire on them, and the demonstrators responded by throwing stones and lathis at the Britishers. The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre remains a controversial event in Indian history and is widely regarded as one of India's darkest chapters of the British Raj.

The Massacre

• On April 13, 1919, Baisakhi day, many people, mainly from the neighboring villages, gathered at Jallianwala Bagh to celebrate the Baisakhi festival.
• At the same place and on the same day, a peaceful protest was also organized against the Rowlatt Act of 1919. However, the mass gathered to celebrate the festival outnumbered the protestors.
• When the news reached Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer, he reached the Jallianwala Bagh with his troops and opened fire at the unarmed gathering without warning. People could not escape as the exit point was blocked.
• The firing continued till the troops ran out of ammunition. 
• Though the death figure estimated by Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer and Mr Irving was 291, the committee headed by Madan Mohan Malviya estimated that over 500 were massacred.
• On hearing the news of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, the outrage of the Indians against the British grew even more. 
• In his weekly publication Young India, Mahatma Gandhi stated following the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, "No government merits respect which holds the liberty of its subjects."
• During the protest, Rabindranath Tagore surrendered his knighthood, which was bestowed upon him in 1915.
• The Hunter Commission was established on October 14, 1919, to look into the Jallianwala Bagh incident on the orders of Edwin Montagu, the then Secretary of State for India. Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer was recalled to England after being relieved of his duties. But no legal action was brought against him for committing the brutal Act.
• The Lieutenant Governor, Michael O'Dwyer, who was believed to be the key planner of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, was assassinated by Udham Singh on March 13, 1940.

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Response To Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre was widely criticized both in India and abroad. There was an intense wave of protests against the British government due to the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar. In reaction, the government attempted to stop these agitations with oppressive measures and issued Martial Law Ordinances in many regions.

INC's Response to the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

The Indian National Congress (INC) firmly denounced the massacre. Mahatma Gandhi, who had supported the British Empire, was profoundly shocked and returned the Kaiser-i-Hind medal awarded to him for his service during the Boer War. The Indian National Congress (INC) set up its non-official committee to ask about the massacre, including C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Abbas Tyabji, MK Gandhi, and M.R. Jaykar.

British Response to the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

The British government initially attempted to hide information about the massacre. Yet, as news spread, there was widespread condemnation in India and Britain.

• Many British heads, including Winston Churchill and former Prime Minister H.H Asquith, criticized the massacre in the British Parliament.
• Michael O'Dwyer, the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, firmly supported Dyer's actions. He suspected that a revolt against the British Raj was brewing in Punjab. He also supported the massacre and contributed immensely to its planning.
• The Hunter Commission under Lord Hunter was appointed to examine the incident on October 14, 1919. While it criticized Dyer's actions, many Indians felt the commission's conclusions were too forgiving.
• The Hunter Committee did not charge any penal or disciplinary action.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre - Impact

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre profoundly affected India's independence struggle, revealing British pressure, highlighting the failure of justice, and fueling nationalist feelings that strengthened the fight against colonial rule.

• Exposed British Bigotry: The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre emphasized the racist and unjust nature of British rule. It also revealed the deep-seated disregard the colonial government had for Indian lives. The massacre shook many, especially moderates, who had thought of the fairness of British rule but were disappointed when the offenders faced minimal consequences.

• Failure of Justice: The Hunter Commission, appointed to examine the incident, failed to provide justice. General Dyer faced no extreme punishment; he was merely rid of duty and banned from further employment in India, but no trial followed.

• Fuelled Nationalist Sentiments: The massacre significantly strengthened the Indian independence movement. It uncovered the cruel reality of British rule and led to increased support for anti-colonial activities. It fueled the rise of young freedom fighters who decided to end British rule.

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