Lord Lytton - Background, Diplomatic Career, Policies and Later Life

Lord Lytton, also known as Edward Robert Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton, was an English politician who served as the Viceroy of India from 1876 to 1880. Lord Lytton viceroy of India is usually considered a ruthless viceroy due to his handling of the Great Indian Famine of 1876-1878, Grand Darbar, the Second Anglo-Afghan War, and his discriminatory Arms policy by him. 

Lord Lytton is one of the most important personalities under the Viceroys of India for the UPSC IAS Examination. It covers a significant part of the Modern History subject in the Mains General Studies Paper-1 syllabus and UPSC Prelims Syllabus General Studies Paper-1.

Lord Lytton - Viceroy of India

Who was Lord Lytton?

Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton, was born on November 8, 1831, in London, England. He assumed the position of Viceroy of India from 1876 to 1880 during the reign of Queen Victoria. Lord Lytton was a career diplomat and writer, known for his literary works and contributions to British politics before his appointment as Viceroy. His tenure as Viceroy was marked by a controversial policy known as the Vernacular Press Act of 1878, which aimed to regulate the Indian vernacular press and limit its freedom of expression. The policies introduced during his term, including the infamous 'Famine Codes,' have been criticized for their handling of the 1876-1878 famine in India, which resulted in significant loss of life.

Read more on Swadeshi Movement with the linked article.

History Background of Lord Lytton

Lytton was born to Edward Bulwer-Lytton and Rosina Doyle Wheeler on November 8, 1831, in London, England. His mother was a strong supporter of women's rights. Lord Lytton started his professional life as an associate of his uncle Sir Henry Bulwer in 1849. He started his diplomatic career in 1852 when he was sent to Florence.

He worked in several European cities before being named British Consul General in Belgrade in 1860, including St. Petersburg, Vienna, and Paris. In 1876, Lytton was appointed Governor-General and Viceroy of India.

Lord Lytton as Viceroy of India

• In 1875, Lytton was announced as the Viceroy of India.
• He officially assumed the role of Viceroy in 1876.
• The Royal Titles Act of 1876 was passed, declaring Queen Victoria as Empress of India.
• The Great Famine of 1876, caused by monsoon failure and Lytton's policies, took a devastating toll on India.
• In 1877, he organized the Delhi Darbar, attended by Indian nobility, British officials, and around 85,000 people.
• The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 allowed the Viceroy to censor and confiscate newspapers deemed "seditious."
• The Second Anglo-Afghan War was initiated in 1878 under Lytton's orders.
• Lord Lytton's policies fueled Indian nationalist sentiments and were often marked by cruelty.
• He promoted financial devolution to provincial governments, hoping to expand their revenue sources.
• A Famine Commission was established in response to the 1876-1878 famine, shaping future famine policies.
• His delayed response to the famine led to the deaths of millions of Indians.
• Lytton's free trade policies and removal of import taxes favored Britain's economic exploitation of India.
• The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 restricted Indian-language newspapers.
• He introduced the Arms Act in 1878, regulating the ownership and trade of firearms.
• Lytton created the Statutory Civil Service in India to discourage Indian participation in covenanted services.
• He lowered the qualifying age for the Covenanted Service Examination from 21 to 19, hindering Indian candidates.
• His beliefs in Social Darwinism influenced his harsh treatment of famine-stricken Indian peasants.

Read more on Surat Split 1907 with the linked article.

Lord Lytton as Ambassador to Paris

Lytton held the position of Ambassador to France from 1887 to 1891. Before assuming this role, in the latter part of the 1880s, he worked as the Secretary to the Ambassador to Paris, Lord Lyons. Following Lyons' resignation in 1887, Lytton succeeded him as Ambassador. He had previously shown interest in the position and found satisfaction in returning to his former profession. On November 24, 1891, Lord Lytton passed away in Paris, where he received the rare distinction of a state funeral. His remains were subsequently brought back for burial in the family mausoleum situated in Knebworth Park. Additionally, a memorial in his honor stands in St Paul's Cathedral, London.

Read more on Morley – Minto Reforms with the linked article.

Lord Lytton Policies

Lord Lytton was a very active Viceroy of India who framed policies on different aspects. These were related to administration, geopolitics, finance, defense, etc. Major policies of Lord Lytton were the Vernacular Press Act, Anglo-Afghan war, the Royal Titles Act of 1876, the Grand Darbar of 1877, and the Financial Reforms and Arms Act of 1878. The below mentioned are various policies of Lord Lytton:

Vernacular Press Act

The Vernacular Press Act was implemented in 1878 by Lord Lytton. The act authorizes Viceroy to seize and confiscate the press of any vernacular(Indian) publishing press whose content and intention seem ‘seditious’ to the British government. People were unhappy with Lytton’s policies, so he enacted this Act to prevent the government from mocking him.

District Magistrates had the authority to require any printer or publisher to enter under a bond under this legislation. A commitment to only print something that would encourage dissatisfaction against the government with the government's permission of the printer was made in the bond. Additionally, the magistrate was given the authority to keep a security deposit, which might be lost if the printer violated the terms of the contract. The printer’s press may be seized if he breaks the law again.

The worst part of the Act was that it discriminated between Native Vernacular Press and loyal Anglo-Indian Press, which, i.e. termed the Gagging Act. It was intended deliberately at Amrita Bazaar Patrika, which had gone English overnight to avoid getting caught in the act. Sisir Ghosh and Moti Lal Ghosh started Amrita Bazaar Patrika on 20 February 1868. As a result, a public agitation led by Surendranath Banerjee took place in Calcutta.

Read more on Gadar Party Movement with the linked article.

Royal Titles Act, 1876 & Grand Darbar of 1877

Queen Victoria was given the title of ‘Kaiser-i-Hind’, or ‘Queen Empress of India’, under the Royal Titles Act 1876. The British government passed the Royal Titles Act. A Grand Darbar was held in Delhi on January 1, 1877, to announce the assumption of the Title by the people and princes of India. Unfortunately, Darbar occurred during a famine in many parts of the country. Lytton wasted millions on grandeur and display while starving his subjects.

This implanted in Indians a sense of national humiliation, and wide-scale protests started. “Nero was tinkering as Rome burnt,” the Calcutta Journal commented on Grand Darbar. Darbar, on the other hand, turned out to be a savior. The Act unintentionally raised the status of Indian subjects of the Queen to citizens of the British Empire. This encouraged people like SN Banerjee to form an Indian association to address their grievances.

Financial Decentralisation

Lord Mayo championed the separation of central and provincial finances in 1870. The provincial administrations were given sums of money from central funds to run various services, including police, jails, and education, as they saw fit.

Lord Lytton made another step forward in the path of financial devolution. The provincial governments were given the authority to spend money on land revenue, excise, stamps, law and justice, etc. For this reason, the provinces were given various revenue sources, such as excise, license fees, and so on. It was also determined that any surplus above expected income would be split equally between the center and the provinces.

The center would cover half of a province’s deficit in a shortfall. The new approach encouraged provincial governments to expand their revenue sources. Also, the famine affected Bombay, Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad, and areas of Central India and Punjab. According to Romesh Dutt, the disease impacted a population of 5.8 crores, and 50 lakh people perished in a year.

The administration only tried half-heartedly to help the famine victims, and relief efforts by the government were ineffective. Richard Strachey founded the Famine Commission in 1878, which called for able-bodied people to be provided with work at pay that would allow them to retain their survival. He proposed that a railway and irrigation works be built to accomplish this.

Arms Act, 1878

• The Indian Arms Act was another restrictive legislation enacted by Lord Lytton.
• It was now illegal to keep or deal in arms without a license.
• The penalty was fine or three years in prison up to a maximum of 7 years, or both.
• The worst element was that it excluded Anglo-Indians, Europeans, and certain government personnel.
• As a result, it was a racial act, and Indians opposed it.

Read more on Home Rule Movement with the linked article.

The diplomatic career of Lord Lytton

At 18, Lytton joined the diplomatic service when he was named attaché to his uncle Sir Henry Bulwer, the Minister in Washington, DC. He first met Henry Clay and Daniel Webster at this point. He started working as a paid diplomat in 1852 as an attaché in Florence. He then held positions in Paris (1854) and The Hague (1856). He served at Vienna, Constantinople, and St. Petersburg in 1858. He was made British Consul General in Belgrade in 1860.

Lytton was promoted to Second Secretary in Vienna in 1862, but his accomplishments in Belgrade led Lord Russell to name him Secretary of the Legation in Copenhagen in 1863. During this time, Lytton served twice as Chargé d'Affaires in the Schleswig-Holstein conflict. Lytton was sent to the Greek court in 1864 to counsel the young Danish Prince. Lytton was appointed British Minister Plenipotentiary in Lisbon by 1874, a position he held until 1876 when he was named Governor General and Viceroy of India.

Later Life of Lord Lytton

From 1887 to 1891, Lord Lytton held the position of ambassador to France. Before being appointed, he worked as the ambassador to Paris's secretary. In 1891, Lytton passed away on November 24. He had a state funeral, which was not typical for a British diplomat at the time. He was buried at Knebworth Park at his family's mausoleum.

Read more on Champaran Satyagraha with this link.

Conclusion

Without a doubt, Lytton was a thinker and an administrator, but as a ruler of India, he was a failure. He was mainly concerned with the Empire’s security and had little regard for the interests and opinions of the people he governed. The people were dissatisfied with Lytton’s unpopular and oppressive policies. The turmoil had extended throughout the country, and his policies paved the way for the birth of Indian nationalism.

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