Labour and Society – UPSC Sociology Notes

Labour-society relationship is a constitutive issue in sociological inquiry, with historical, economic, and cultural aspects of the organization, valuation, and regulation of human work in societies. Labour does not only connote physical or intellectual effort but also represents multifaceted social organization, class relationships, and institutional orders that manage production, reproduction, and the distribution of commodities and services. Sociologists from Karl Marx to Émile Durkheim have explored labour as a transformative force which molds social identity, organizes social inequality, and mediates the individual's relation with the economy and the state. This topic explores how labour evolves in different social contexts and how broader forces such as capitalism, industrialization, and globalization influence labour practices and institutions.

What Will You Learn from This Article?

This section outlines the core conceptual and analytical takeaways relevant to your UPSC Sociology Optional preparation:

• Theoretical understanding of labour in classical and modern sociology.
• Role of labour in structuring class, caste, and gender relations.
• Comparison of labour systems across different societies.
• Impact of industrialization, globalization, and informalization on labour.
• Labour rights, unions, and state intervention in modern labour relations.

Important Points for Revision for UPSC Mains

Below are key takeaways from the topic "Labour and Society" that are important for quick revision before the UPSC Mains exam:

• Labour is both an economic and social category reflecting the organization of work in society.
• Karl Marx viewed labour as central to class struggle and alienation in capitalist societies.
• Émile Durkheim differentiated between mechanical and organic solidarity based on division of labour.
• Max Weber linked the spirit of capitalism to Protestant work ethics, emphasizing rationalization of labour.
• The labour process has undergone a transformation from feudal to capitalist and post-industrial societies.
• Formal sector labour is governed by contracts and laws; informal sector remains outside such protection.
• Gendered division of labour reflects patriarchal values in both productive and reproductive work.
• Caste plays a crucial role in occupational segregation and labour hierarchies in Indian society.
• Trade unions emerged as a response to exploitation and are key institutions of labour representation.
• Industrial relations in India have evolved from colonial repression to post-independence regulation.
• Globalization has led to a flexible labour regime, contractualization, and informalization.
• Labour migration, both internal and international, affects family structure, gender roles, and social networks.
• The gig economy challenges traditional employer-employee relationships.
• State intervention in labour includes laws like the Minimum Wages Act and the Industrial Disputes Act.
• Labour laws are often inadequately implemented, especially in unorganized sectors.
• The ILO defines decent work as productive work under conditions of freedom, equity, security, and dignity.
• The informal sector constitutes more than 90% of the Indian workforce.
• Women’s labour force participation in India remains low due to socio-cultural constraints.
• Child labour continues to be a major concern despite legal prohibitions.
• Labour in rural India is often linked to land ownership, caste, and seasonal migration.

Labour, Class, and Social Stratification

Labour is the basis of social stratification in the majority of societies. In classical Marxist theory, the labour-capital relationship organizes the class divide between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The owners of the means of production extract surplus value from labour, leading to class exploitation. This conceptualization of labour underpins the Marxist critique of capitalism, which sees economic inequality and alienation of workers as systemic outcomes of capitalist labour relations.

In Indian society, labour is also mediated by caste. The conventional caste structure arranged work according to occupation according to jati, which created an inherited and formalized division of labor. Untouchable castes (Dalits) historically occupied the most demeaning, low-waged jobs, perpetuating economic deprivation as well as social marginalization.

Weber introduced the idea of status groups and market situation, showing how labour markets stratify people not only based on their class position but also on social prestige and skills. Skilled workers often enjoy higher status and bargaining power compared to unskilled labourers. Thus, labour stratification is multi-dimensional, involving class, status, and power.

Gender and Labour

Labour is strongly gendered. Feminist sociology has been concerned to criticise the way that classical theories of labour have excluded women's work, especially unpaid care work and domestic labour. While formal paid work has typically been equated with men, women's work in homes, agriculture, and the informal economy has been underestimated and devalued.

The sexual division of labour assigns different roles to men and women—men are positioned in productive labour, while women are relegated to reproductive labour. This division sustains patriarchy and limits women’s mobility and autonomy.

Women also face a ‘double burden’—managing both economic and household responsibilities, often without recognition or support. In India, the labour force participation rate of women remains alarmingly low, despite rising educational attainment. This is attributed to structural constraints, safety concerns, gender norms, and unpaid care burdens.

With globalization and economic liberalization, women have entered new domains of employment, including call centers and garment industries. However, these sectors are marked by low wages, exploitative conditions, and job insecurity.

Formal and Informal Labour

The divide between formal and informal labour is key to understanding today. Formal labour is contractual, regulated labour with protective labour laws often covering it. Informal labour, on the other hand, operates outside the legal framework and lacks job security, benefits, or regulation.

In India, over 90% of workers are employed in the informal sector. These include daily-wage labourers, street vendors, domestic workers, and agricultural labourers. Informality implies vulnerability—absence of written contracts, unpredictable income, and no access to social security or health insurance.

Even within the formal sector, informalization is increasing through contractualization and outsourcing. Permanent jobs are being replaced with short-term contracts, stripping workers of benefits and bargaining rights. This leads to a dualistic labour market where a small proportion enjoys security while the majority remains precarious.

Labour Migration

Labour migration is another key dimension of labour and society. In India, both rural-to-urban and inter-state migration are common. Migrant workers take up low-paying jobs in construction, domestic work, sanitation, and small manufacturing.

Migration is often driven by poverty, lack of employment in home regions, and agrarian distress. However, migrants face exclusion in destination cities—lack of housing, sanitation, identity papers, and social security. The COVID-19 pandemic exposed the precarious existence of migrant workers, with reverse migration causing humanitarian distress.

Global migration also mirrors the international division of labour. Labour gaps in the Global North are filled by migrants from the Global South, usually in care, agriculture, and service industries. They are exposed to racialized discrimination, exploitation, and legal precariousness.

Globalization, Technology, and Labour Flexibility

Globalization has brought about a major shift in the organization of labour. Transnational corporations (TNCs), flexible labour regimes, and global supply chains dominate the economic landscape. Labour is now more fragmented, mobile, and flexible.

Technological changes, especially automation and digitalization, have disrupted traditional labour markets. While new opportunities have emerged in IT and gig work, there has been a displacement of semi-skilled and low-skilled labour.

The gig economy—comprising food delivery, ride-sharing, and freelancing—is celebrated for its flexibility but criticized for precariousness. Gig workers lack employment contracts, insurance, or bargaining power. Their ambiguous status as ‘independent contractors’ shields companies from labour law obligations.

Labour Rights and Trade Unions

Labour rights encompass the right to receive fair wages, have safe working conditions, engage in collective bargaining, and have social security. Such rights are embedded within national legislation and international agreements like those of the International Labour Organization (ILO).

Trade unions play a crucial role in advocating for labour rights. In India, trade unions have historically been strong in organized sectors like railways, banking, and public enterprises. However, their influence has declined due to privatization, informalization, and political co-optation.

Many new sectors, especially informal and gig economies, lack unionization. There is an urgent need for new forms of worker organization suited to the realities of the 21st-century economy.

UPSC Mains PYQs on Labour and Society

Below are actual UPSC Mains Sociology Optional questions related to the theme of labour and society, which will help aspirants understand the exam’s analytical focus:

1. Discuss the impact of globalization on labour relations in India. (UPSC Sociology Optional Paper II – 2018)
2. How has the informalization of labour affected social inequality in contemporary Indian society? (UPSC Sociology Optional Paper II – 2017)
3. Examine the role of caste and gender in determining occupational patterns in rural India. (UPSC Sociology Optional Paper II – 2020)
4. What are the sociological consequences of internal migration for labour markets in urban India? (UPSC Sociology Optional Paper II – 2015)
5. Critically analyse the changing role of trade unions in India’s industrial sector. (UPSC Sociology Optional Paper II – 2014)

Important Books on Labour and Society (UPSC PSIR Optional & GS Paper II)

Here is a list of essential books that cover both theoretical and empirical aspects of labour in society, particularly relevant for UPSC aspirants: